The Science of Happiness: An Integrative Review of Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being

Abstract

Happiness has long been conceptualised as both the pursuit of pleasure and the realisation of purpose. Contemporary psychological science distinguishes between hedonic well-being—defined as the relative prevalence of positive over negative affect and the presence of life satisfaction—and eudaimonic well-being, which emphasises meaning, purpose, and self-realisation. Crucially, the goal of well-being is not to achieve unbroken happiness but to function adaptively, regulating both positive and negative emotions in ways that promote growth and resilience. Research demonstrates that temperament contributes a genetic “set point” for subjective well-being, yet daily habits, social contexts, and cultural frameworks significantly modulate outcomes. Mechanisms such as hedonic adaptation caution against equating happiness with transient pleasure, while theories of motivation, such as Self-Determination Theory and Seligman’s PERMA framework, highlight the role of autonomy, competence, relationships, and meaning in sustaining flourishing. Cognitive processes—particularly attentional focus, rumination, and social comparison—further shape affective experience, underscoring the interplay of mind, behaviour, and environment. Taken together, this evidence affirms that durable well-being is best achieved through the integration of hedonic enjoyment, eudaimonic purpose, and adaptive regulation, situated within the individual’s cultural and value system.

Keywords: Hedonic well-being; Eudaimonic well-being; Hedonic adaptation; Self-Determination Theory; PERMA model; Subjective well-being

What does it mean to live a happy life? For centuries, philosophers and scientists alike have debated whether happiness is best defined as the experience of pleasure or the pursuit of virtue. Modern psychology captures this tension by distinguishing between hedonic well-being—the presence of frequent positive emotions, infrequent negative emotions, and overall life satisfaction—and eudaimonic well-being, which emphasises meaning, personal growth, and the alignment of actions with one’s core values (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Diener et al., 2018). Importantly, the goal of well-being research is not to prescribe perpetual happiness but to understand how individuals can function well, adapt to challenges, and regulate their emotions—including unpleasant ones—in ways that sustain long-term flourishing (Ryff, 2014).

A growing body of evidence reveals that while genetic and temperamental factors establish a partial “set point” for subjective well-being, these dispositions are far from deterministic. Daily habits, social relationships, and cultural norms exert powerful influences on how happiness is experienced and sustained (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005). At the same time, the phenomenon of hedonic adaptation—the tendency to return to baseline levels of well-being after positive or negative events—underscores the limitations of pursuing happiness solely through material gains or fleeting pleasures (Brickman & Campbell, 1971).

Motivational theories such as Self-Determination Theory (SDT) emphasise that durable well-being is supported when individuals experience autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Similarly, Seligman’s PERMA model identifies five pillars of flourishing: positive emotions, engagement (or flow), relationships, meaning, and achievement (Seligman, 2011). Cognitive processes also play a critical role: the way individuals interpret events, manage attention, and engage in rumination or comparison significantly influences their affective landscape (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Finally, culture and values shape what it means to “live well,” reminding us that well-being cannot be divorced from its social and historical context (Diener, Oishi, & Tay, 2018). Taken together, these perspectives highlight that happiness is not a static state but a dynamic process, shaped by the interplay of biology, habits, cognition, and context. This article synthesises current evidence on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, integrating psychological theory, empirical findings, and cultural considerations to clarify the pathways toward sustained flourishing.

This dual framework also challenges the misconception that the goal of happiness is to feel good all the time. Instead, as Kashdan et al. (2020) argue, adaptive well-being entails the capacity to regulate both pleasant and unpleasant emotions in service of broader life goals. Temporary experiences of sadness, anxiety, or frustration are not antithetical to happiness but rather form part of a balanced emotional ecology that supports learning, social bonding, and motivation. In this sense, happiness is better understood as effective emotional regulation and value-congruent living, rather than the perpetual maximisation of pleasure.

The Dynamics of Happiness: Set-Point Theory and Temperament

One of the most enduring frameworks in the science of happiness is the set-point theory, which posits that individuals possess a genetically influenced baseline level of subjective well-being to which they tend to return following life events (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Early twin studies suggested that as much as 40–50% of the variance in long-term happiness could be attributed to heritable temperament, with life circumstances accounting for a surprisingly small proportion (Bartels, 2015). According to Lucas (2007), this explains why people often adapt to both positive and negative changes—such as marriage or disability—reverting over time to a characteristic equilibrium of well-being.

However, more recent research has refined and nuanced the set-point model. For example, longitudinal studies indicate that while genetic predispositions strongly shape affective baselines, environmental factors and intentional activities exert durable effects that can shift well-being trajectories (Diener et al., 2018; Weiss et al., 2022). Julia et al. (2020) report that individuals with genetic vulnerabilities to depression exhibit lower average set-points, yet sustained habits such as exercise, social connection, and cognitive reframing can buffer these risks and elevate baseline mood. Thus, temperament creates constraints, but it does not determine destiny.

Moreover, contemporary accounts emphasise that set-points may be better understood as ranges rather than fixed positions. According to Headey and Muffels (2018), people oscillate within a “happiness range” shaped by temperament, yet major life choices—such as career direction, relationship quality, or community engagement—can systematically recalibrate the level at which one stabilises. This reframing highlights the interplay between dispositional affectivity and context-dependent plasticity. In short, temperament and genetic influences provide a foundation for subjective well-being, but dynamic processes such as adaptation, habit formation, and social environments shape whether individuals merely return to their baseline or gradually expand their capacity for flourishing. Far from a static construct, happiness emerges as the result of ongoing negotiation between inherited dispositions and lived experience.

Motivational and Theoretical Frameworks

One of the most influential perspectives on well-being is Self-Determination Theory (SDT), first articulated by Deci and Ryan (1985). According to this framework, the experience of happiness and psychological growth is contingent upon the fulfilment of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers to the sense that one’s actions are self-endorsed and volitional; competence captures feelings of mastery and effectiveness; and relatedness reflects the human need for belonging and connection. When these needs are consistently satisfied, individuals report greater life satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, and resilience in the face of stressors (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Gardner (2019) emphasises that life satisfaction depends not merely on the accumulation of external rewards, but on the extent to which individuals live in environments that nurture autonomy and competence while supporting authentic social bonds. In contrast, when these needs are frustrated, the result is diminished well-being, greater vulnerability to depression, and heightened susceptibility to external pressures (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Julia et al. (2021) add that genetic predispositions to depression are often moderated by the satisfaction of psychological needs, suggesting that SDT provides not only a motivational but also a protective framework for understanding well-being across contexts.

Neuroscientific findings further reinforce these psychological insights. Di Domenico and Ryan (2017) demonstrate that autonomy satisfaction is linked with activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), a region implicated in valuation and self-referential processing, while relatedness correlates with activation in the ventral striatum, which underpins reward and social bonding. Such evidence illustrates how the mechanisms postulated by SDT map onto neural systems of motivation and reward, providing a biological basis for the theory’s claims. By bridging psychology and neuroscience, SDT underscores that well-being emerges not from fleeting pleasures but from the sustained experience of living in accordance with one’s intrinsic needs and values.

Complementing SDT, Seligman (2011) advanced the PERMA model, which organises well-being into five measurable domains: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Achievement. According to this framework, positive emotions foster resilience and broaden cognitive repertoires, while engagement reflects the immersive experience of flow, as first described by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Relationships are emphasised as central to happiness, a point underscored by Holt-Lunstad (2018), who demonstrates that the presence of supportive social connections is one of the strongest predictors of both psychological and physical health. Meaning, defined as a sense of purpose and contribution to something greater than oneself, is highlighted by Gardner (2019) as a key determinant of sustainable life satisfaction. Finally, achievement anchors the model in the pursuit and attainment of goals, reinforcing self-efficacy and long-term motivation.

Empirical evidence supports the utility of the PERMA model across diverse settings. Kern et al. (2015) showed that the application of PERMA in educational contexts enhanced student well-being, engagement, and academic performance, while Donaldson et al. (2021) demonstrated similar benefits in workplace interventions. At the same time, Hone et al. (2014) caution that cultural variations in the meaning of achievement and happiness necessitate careful contextualisation, as the model may privilege Western conceptions of success and flourishing. Nonetheless, the model’s strength lies in its accessibility and multidimensional nature, enabling both researchers and practitioners to operationalise well-being in ways that integrate hedonic, eudaimonic, and performance-related components. Together, SDT and PERMA provide a robust motivational and theoretical foundation for understanding the dynamics of happiness and designing interventions that promote both individual and societal flourishing.

Happiness is shaped not only by external conditions or motivational needs but also by the cognitive filters through which individuals interpret their experiences. According to Gardner (2020), attention acts as a gateway to well-being: what people notice and dwell upon strongly influences their emotional states. Studies in cognitive psychology demonstrate that attention is limited and selective, meaning that positive or negative attentional biases can reinforce distinct affective patterns (Joormann & Vanderlind, 2014). For example, individuals prone to anxiety are more likely to orient toward threat cues, amplifying distress, while those trained in mindfulness practices show greater flexibility in redirecting attention toward neutral or positive stimuli (Kiken et al., 2015). These findings underscore that attention is not a passive process but a regulator of emotional tone and well-being.

Interpretation further amplifies these effects. The same event can be appraised as either threatening or benign, depending on the interpretive lens applied. Julia et al. (2021) argue that genetic predispositions toward depressive thinking often manifest through negatively biased interpretations of ambiguous events. Such interpretive tendencies constrain the possibility of positive reappraisal, thereby reinforcing low mood and reducing subjective well-being. In contrast, cognitive-behavioural interventions that encourage reframing or reinterpreting experiences have been shown to increase resilience and elevate life satisfaction (Beck & Haigh, 2014). Thus, interpretive flexibility becomes a critical determinant of whether experiences contribute to flourishing or to emotional stagnation.

Rumination, defined as repetitive, passive focus on one’s distress, exemplifies how maladaptive cognition undermines happiness. According to Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (2008), rumination maintains and exacerbates negative affect by trapping individuals in cycles of self-focused thought, limiting problem-solving and preventing emotional recovery. Longitudinal evidence links habitual rumination to heightened vulnerability for both depression and anxiety, and to lower levels of life satisfaction (Watkins, 2016). At the same time, research suggests that constructive forms of reflection—such as deliberate, solution-focused thought—can foster insight and growth (Watkins & Roberts, 2020). The distinction between maladaptive rumination and adaptive reflection highlights the nuanced role of cognition in shaping emotional outcomes.

Finally, social comparison plays a pivotal role in the cognitive construction of happiness. Festinger’s (1954) foundational social comparison theory remains highly relevant in the digital era, where exposure to curated images of others’ achievements often fosters dissatisfaction and envy. Empirical work confirms that upward comparisons—measuring oneself against those perceived as more successful—can erode life satisfaction and self-esteem, particularly in contexts such as social media (Verduyn et al., 2020). Conversely, downward comparisons or comparisons made with a mindset of learning rather than competition may foster gratitude and motivation (Buunk & Gibbons, 2007). Gardner (2020) notes that the interpretive stance adopted in comparisons—whether competitive, appreciative, or neutral—often determines their ultimate emotional impact.

Taken together, attention, interpretation, rumination, and comparison demonstrate that happiness is not merely the outcome of external events but the result of ongoing cognitive processes. By shaping what individuals notice, how they appraise experiences, and how they relate to themselves and others, these mechanisms continuously construct the subjective landscape of well-being. Interventions that target cognitive flexibility—training attention, reframing interpretations, reducing maladaptive rumination, and fostering healthier social comparisons—offer promising pathways for enhancing both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being.

Cognitive Influences

While motivational frameworks establish the conditions that enable flourishing, the role of cognition in shaping happiness is equally crucial. The way individuals attend to, interpret, and compare experiences exerts a powerful influence on their subjective well-being. According to Kahneman (2011), attention acts as a “spotlight” that determines which aspects of reality are amplified in consciousness. This means that focusing disproportionately on negative events can magnify distress, whereas deliberately orienting attention toward positive stimuli, such as daily gratitude practices, can enhance life satisfaction (Quoidbach et al., 2019). Yet, attention alone is insufficient—how events are interpreted also matters. Cognitive appraisal theories suggest that identical circumstances can be construed as either threatening or manageable depending on prior beliefs and coping resources (Gross, 2015).

Maladaptive cognitive patterns, particularly rumination, can substantially erode happiness. Watkins (2015) notes that rumination prolongs negative affect by trapping individuals in repetitive cycles of self-focused thought, often centred on perceived shortcomings or failures. Longitudinal studies indicate that excessive rumination predicts not only lower hedonic well-being but also greater risk for depression and anxiety (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008; Aldao et al., 2019). By contrast, positive reappraisal strategies, such as reframing setbacks as opportunities for growth, are associated with greater resilience and enhanced eudaimonic well-being (Troy et al., 2010).

Social comparison processes further complicate the cognitive landscape of happiness. According to Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory, individuals evaluate their standing by contrasting themselves with others. Contemporary evidence shows that upward comparisons, especially on social media platforms, frequently undermine well-being by eliciting envy and dissatisfaction (Verduyn et al., 2020). However, downward comparisons or lateral comparisons framed constructively can foster gratitude, self-acceptance, and perspective-taking (Gerber et al., 2018). Importantly, Gardner (2020) emphasises that life satisfaction depends not only on external achievements but also on how individuals cognitively construe these achievements relative to their values and expectations.

Overall, cognitive processes act as mediators between external circumstances and subjective well-being. Attention filters experience, interpretation shapes meaning, rumination can distort emotional balance, and comparison calibrates self-evaluation. Interventions that target these processes—such as mindfulness training to regulate attention, cognitive-behavioural strategies to challenge maladaptive appraisals, and gratitude practices to counteract negative comparisons—demonstrate significant potential for enhancing both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (Garland et al., 2015; Kuyken et al., 2019).

Although much of the happiness literature is rooted in Western psychology, evidence increasingly demonstrates that subjective well-being is culturally constructed and context dependent. Diener et al. (2018) argue that while hedonic and eudaimonic elements of happiness are near-universal, their expression and prioritisation differ markedly across societies. For instance, in many Western nations, happiness is closely linked to individual autonomy, positive affect, and personal achievement, whereas in East Asian contexts, happiness is more frequently associated with social harmony, relational attunement, and balance (Uchida, Norasakkunkit, & Kitayama, 2004). This suggests that what counts as “living well” cannot be divorced from cultural values and collective expectations.

Cross-cultural surveys further reveal striking differences in the meaning of life satisfaction. According to Gardner (2020), life satisfaction depends heavily on alignment with socially valued roles; for example, fulfilling obligations to family and community may be more predictive of happiness in collectivist societies than individual self-expression. Similarly, Julia et al. (2021) report that even genetic predispositions toward depression interact with cultural context, such that protective factors like community rituals, shared narratives, and spiritual practices buffer against vulnerability in certain populations. These findings reinforce the view that biology sets broad parameters, but cultural scripts guide how individuals interpret and regulate emotional experience.

Moreover, cultural context shapes emotional norms and regulation strategies. Miyamoto & Ma (2011) found that in Japan, moderate and mixed emotions are considered signs of maturity, leading individuals to regulate affect differently than in North America, where high-arousal positive emotions (e.g., excitement) are often idealised. This divergence has downstream effects on well-being interventions: practices like gratitude journaling or mindfulness may resonate differently depending on whether they align with local norms about selfhood, humility, and expression (Markus & Kitayama, 2010).

Finally, cultural perspectives highlight the risk of imposing universal prescriptions for happiness. Policies that assume autonomy is the primary driver of well-being may neglect the importance of interdependence in many communities. Instead, evidence points to the need for context-sensitive approaches—whether in clinical practice, education, or public policy—that honor cultural values while promoting both hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions of flourishing (Oishi, 2018).

Integrative Perspectives and Practical Implications

Although much of the happiness literature is rooted in Western psychology, evidence increasingly demonstrates that subjective well-being is culturally constructed and context dependent. Diener et al. (2018) argue that while hedonic and eudaimonic elements of happiness are near-universal, their expression and prioritisation differ markedly across societies. For instance, in many Western nations, happiness is closely linked to individual autonomy, positive affect, and personal achievement, whereas in East Asian contexts, happiness is more frequently associated with social harmony, relational attunement, and balance (Uchida, Norasakkunkit, & Kitayama, 2004). This suggests that what counts as “living well” cannot be divorced from cultural values and collective expectations.

Cross-cultural surveys further reveal striking differences in the meaning of life satisfaction. According to Gardner (2020), life satisfaction depends heavily on alignment with socially valued roles; for example, fulfilling obligations to family and community may be more predictive of happiness in collectivist societies than individual self-expression. Similarly, Julia et al. (2021) report that even genetic predispositions toward depression interact with cultural context, such that protective factors like community rituals, shared narratives, and spiritual practices buffer against vulnerability in certain populations. These findings reinforce the view that biology sets broad parameters, but cultural scripts guide how individuals interpret and regulate emotional experience.

Moreover, cultural context shapes emotional norms and regulation strategies. Miyamoto & Ma (2011) found that in Japan, moderate and mixed emotions are considered signs of maturity, leading individuals to regulate affect differently than in North America, where high-arousal positive emotions (e.g., excitement) are often idealised. This divergence has downstream effects on well-being interventions: practices like gratitude journaling or mindfulness may resonate differently depending on whether they align with local norms about selfhood, humility, and expression (Markus & Kitayama, 2010).

Finally, cultural perspectives highlight the risk of imposing universal prescriptions for happiness. Policies that assume autonomy is the primary driver of well-being may neglect the importance of interdependence in many communities. Instead, evidence points to the need for context-sensitive approaches—whether in clinical practice, education, or public policy—that honor cultural values while promoting both hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions of flourishing (Oishi, 2018).

Balancing hedonic and eudaimonic pursuits

Although research often distinguishes between hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, evidence suggests that the most sustainable forms of happiness arise when the two are pursued in tandem. According to Huta and Ryan (2010), individuals who balance pleasure-oriented motives (e.g., savouring enjoyable moments, seeking comfort) with meaning-oriented motives (e.g., striving for growth, serving others) report higher life satisfaction and resilience than those who rely primarily on one dimension. Hedonic experiences contribute to momentary mood regulation, providing short-term emotional uplift, while eudaimonic activities anchor individuals in values, long-term purpose, and psychological growth (Disabato et al., 2016). This complementarity suggests that well-being is not maximised by the constant pursuit of pleasure, nor by sacrifice in the name of virtue alone, but by cultivating a dynamic integration of both.

Applications for clinical, educational, and policy domains

The implications of this integrative view extend across clinical, educational, and policy domains. Clinically, interventions that combine hedonic skill-building with eudaimonic exercises appear especially effective. Sin and Lyubomirsky’s (2009) meta-analysis demonstrates that positive psychology interventions—such as gratitude journaling or acts of kindness—improve both depressive symptoms and subjective well-being. More recent evidence shows that coupling these with meaning-focused approaches, including values clarification or goal-setting, yields longer-lasting benefits for mental health and resilience (Schutte & Malouff, 2019).

In education, well-being programs grounded in both hedonic and eudaimonic principles enhance student flourishing. Seligman et al. (2009) found that introducing positive psychology curricula improved not only students’ positive affect but also their sense of purpose and academic engagement. Similarly, Waters and Loton (2019) argue that weaving character strengths, service learning, and flow-inducing activities into classroom practice prepares students for psychological resilience and long-term fulfilment, not just academic achievement.

At the policy level, governments are increasingly recognising that well-being extends beyond economic prosperity. The OECD (2013) has recommended subjective well-being indicators—such as life satisfaction, sense of purpose, and social connection—as complements to GDP. According to Helliwell et al. (2021), societies that invest in social cohesion, civic participation, and equitable opportunities tend to report higher levels of sustainable well-being. Policy initiatives that encourage community belonging and reduce inequality help create conditions in which both hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonic purpose can thrive. Taken together, these insights reinforce the principle that happiness should not be conceptualised as the endless pursuit of pleasure or the rigid adherence to moral ideals, but rather as the dynamic integration of both. Clinical practice, educational curricula, and policy design converge on the recognition that true flourishing depends on balancing short-term joys with enduring sources of meaning.

Conclusion: Happiness as Adaptive Regulation and Flourishing

Happiness, far from being a fleeting or simplistic pursuit of pleasure, is best understood as an adaptive regulatory process that integrates affective balance, cognitive appraisal, and values-driven action. The interplay between hedonic and eudaimonic well-being highlights that flourishing is not achieved by eliminating hardship or striving for perpetual positivity, but rather by cultivating the skills and contexts that enable people to regulate emotions, sustain meaning, and pursue growth across time (Ryff, 2014; Deci & Ryan, 2017).

From a psychological perspective, happiness emerges as both a state and a capacity: transient emotions provide signals about immediate needs, while deeper orientations toward purpose, autonomy, and connectedness anchor long-term life satisfaction. Neuroscience complements this view by demonstrating that well-being involves dynamic plasticity across systems of reward, salience, and self-regulation, showing that both biological set points and daily practices shape trajectories of flourishing (Davidson & McEwen, 2012).

Importantly, cultural frameworks remind us that “living well” cannot be reduced to a universal formula but must be contextually embedded, reflecting collective values, social structures, and cultural conceptions of meaning (Oishi & Diener, 2014). What unites these perspectives is the recognition that happiness is less about continuous pleasure and more about navigating life’s inevitable complexity with resilience, purpose, and authenticity.

In this light, the science of happiness is not a prescription for constant positivity but a guide to flourishing: balancing joy with meaning, self-interest with connection, and personal growth with collective well-being. Such a framework places happiness not as an endpoint but as a dynamic process—one that equips individuals and societies alike to adapt, endure, and thrive.

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